Weeds as soil bioindicators: How to sample and use data

Summary

This technical note shows how weed species can be used as indicators of soil conditions that are either linked to soil characteristics (such as soil pH or texture) or to soil management (such as water logging, lack or excess of nutrients, compaction).
It should be stressed that (i) this kind of analysis does not always provide consistent results, because the relationship between weed species and soil conditions is not always clear cut and that (ii) the suggested sampling methodology requires some basic botanical skills for weed identification.